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custody & parenting arrangements
The operative claimA small, methodologically limited body of research suggests that post-separation relocation that increases a child's distance from a parent is, on average, associated with somewhat worse adjustment; the evidence is thin, largely retrospective or cross-sectional, confounded by conflict and selection, and the field's own experts conclude it supports no presumption either for or against relocation.
Contested. A thin, confounded literature suggests relocation that increases distance from a parent is associated with somewhat worse adjustment on average, but the field agrees the evidence supports no presumption for or against relocation.
Rests on a handful of studies built largely around one research program (Braver, Ellman & Fabricius, 2003; Stevenson, Fabricius et al., 2018) plus a scoping review finding only about 17 empirical studies across roughly 10 independent samples (Kostense, 2024). Associations are modest and inconsistent, vary by outcome and travel distance (Poortman, 2021), and are confounded by interparental conflict, the reason for the move, and who moves. Forensic-evaluation syntheses treat residential mobility as a general risk factor but expressly reject any presumption against relocation (Austin, 2007).
Braver, S. L., Ellman, I. M., & Fabricius, W. V (2003). Relocation of children after divorce and children's best interests: new evidence and legal considerations. Journal of Family Psychology.
Cross-sectional
First direct evidence on move-aways: on most child outcomes, students whose parents had moved apart were significantly disadvantaged, suggesting courts should give weight to the child's separate interest in maintaining both parental relationships.
Bearing on this claim: First direct evidence on move-aways: students whose parents moved apart were disadvantaged on most outcomes.
doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.313759Stevenson, M. M., Fabricius, W. V., et al (2018). Associations between parental relocation following separation in childhood and maladjustment in adolescence and young adulthood. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law.
Longitudinal
Long-distance separation from biological fathers before age 12 was linked in adolescence/young adulthood to behavior problems, anxiety and depression, and disturbed relationships with all parental figures, after controlling for conflict, domestic violence, income, and parent relationship quality; replicated Braver et al. (2003) longitudinally.
Bearing on this claim: Longitudinal replication: long-distance separation from fathers before age 12 linked to later maladjustment, controlling for conflict, DV, and income.
doi.org/10.1037/law0000172Austin, W. G (2007). Relocation, research, and forensic evaluation, Part I: Effects of residential mobility on children of divorce. Family Court Review.
Review
Residential mobility is a general risk factor for children of divorce and a starting point for evaluation, but it is NOT a basis for a presumption against relocation; predicting a child's adjustment requires a careful, contextual, individualized investigation.
Bearing on this claim: Forensic synthesis: residential mobility is a general risk factor but NOT a basis for a presumption against relocation.
doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1617.2007.00188.xKostense, L (2024). The consequences of divorce-related relocation: A scoping review on the (lack of) knowledge of the topic. Marriage & Family Review.
Systematic review
Found only 17 empirical studies (10 independent samples); concluded "with due caution" that divorce-related relocation "might possibly" have a short-term negative impact, and called for rigorous longitudinal research with comparison groups — documenting how thin the evidence base is.
Bearing on this claim: Scoping review: only ~17 studies / ~10 independent samples; "with due caution," a possible short-term negative impact — documents how thin the base is.
doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2024.2328245Counter-authority (1). Studies an adversary may cite — surfaced deliberately so the grade is honest about its limits.
Poortman, A.-R (2021). Postdivorce parent-child contact and child outcomes: The role of spatial mobility. European Studies of Population.
Observational
Frequent parent-child contact was, on average, only modestly associated with better outcomes; long travel times were negatively related to children's friendships and psychological well-being but positively related to educational performance — effects depend on travel time and outcome, not a uniform harm.
Bearing on this claim: Effects depend on travel time and outcome — long travel times hurt some outcomes but help others; contact is only modestly related to well-being.
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68479-2_104 supporting · 1 counter verified sources
The evidence base is small and dominated by one research program; most designs are retrospective or cross-sectional; samples are often unrepresentative (e.g., college students); and the central confounds — interparental conflict, the reason for the move, parental gatekeeping, and who relocates — are difficult to disentangle. Effects vary by outcome and distance and may be short-term.
Last reviewed June 28, 2026